Repeated conflicts between the people and the aristocrats deteriorated the sociopolitical environment of Rome into a maelstrom of an uncertain future. On the external front, Rome saw itself become the predominant power in the Mediterranean by conquering Carthage during the Punic Wars and driving Seleucid forces out at the Battle of Magnesia. Internally, however, Rome faced a decline due to numerous social issues, exacerbated by a lack of effective leadership to address internal strife. It was this lack of leadership that many generals sought to address by seizing political power. The first among these military individuals who grabbed power by force was Lucius Cornelius Sulla.
Sulla was one of the most successful generals of Rome. Political rivals such as Gaius Marius, his son Marius the Younger, and Cinna opposed Sulla but all died or were defeated. Sulla returned to Rome after defeating the Kingdom of Pontus in the first Mithridatic War and was soon given the title of “dictator,” characterized by its extraordinary duration and far-reaching powers, allowing him to reshape the Roman landscape to his taste. The appointment as dictator was followed by multiple proscriptions and political purges. He eliminated the “enemies of the state” to consolidate his power and abolished many legislative measures to protect civil rights, including Lex Hortensia, which was established a hundred years prior during the Conflict of the Orders with the purpose of ensuring the political power of the people.
Sulla’s dictatorship is a pivotal event in the demise of the Roman Republic. Although the term “dictator” in Roman society differed from the modern definition of the dictator, being limited in power and only a temporary office, Sulla’s dictatorship resembled more of an absolute ruler rather than a temporary title given during a time of need for strong leadership. Continuing conflicts between the people and the aristocrats and the lack of initiative by the Republic envisioned Rome to one day become an empire, but Sulla was the first to manifest and set the precedent of Rome under a sole absolute ruler. During his reign, Sulla altered the Roman constitution to diminish power from the popular assemblies and restored the traditional balance of power back to the Optimates (aristocrats) who supported Sulla in the fight against Gaius Marius and his Populares supporters.
Among the many Roman individuals that Sulla marked in his proscriptions to eliminate was Julius Caesar. Greek philosopher Plutarch writes of Sulla’s thoughts on Caesar in his work, “Remember, this young man who you have been so desperate to save will one day destroy the aristocracy you have worked with me to preserve. For in this Caesar, I see many a Marius.” Sulla foreshadows that one day, Caesar would rise as the populist leader and overthrow the Senate, just like what Marius and other populist leaders sought to achieve against Sulla and other Optimates. The other two main individuals affected by Sulla were Pompey and Crassus. Pompey gained popularity under Sulla in his military campaign and was renowned as Rome’s hero; Crassus amassed the wealth of eliminated individuals by Sulla’s proscriptions and became one of the wealthiest Romans.
In essence, Sulla’s impact on Rome, marked by the use of military force and the erosion of traditional political structures, contributed to the conditions that allowed the First Triumvirate to form. The path to dictatorship forged by Sulla proved clear that Rome needed a change in its authority and leadership, and that path was followed by triumvirs in the tumultuous final years of the Roman Republic.